Energy – Extra Study Material

Introduction

Energy is an essential component of our daily lives, powering everything from the lights in our homes to the cars we drive. As we become increasingly dependent on technology and the energy demand continues to grow, it is crucial to understand the different sources of energy available to us. The sources of energy can be broadly classified into renewable and non-renewable sources, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages.

This chapter aims to provide an overview of the various sources of energy and their impact on the environment, economy, and society. By gaining a deeper understanding of these sources, we can make informed decisions about how we use and generate energy to meet our present and future needs.

Good energy source

A source of energy is that which is capable of providing enough useful energy at a steady rate over a long period of time. A Good source of energy should be:

• Easy to transport: For example; petrol, diesel, coal, LPG etc. are easier to transport using tankers and cargo trains.
• Easy to store, For example; huge storage tanks are required to store petrol, diesel, LPG etc.
• Safe and convenient to use, For example; energy nuclear can be used only by highly trained engineers with the help of nuclear power plants. It cannot be used for our household purpose.

Characteristics of a good fuel

• Easy availability.
• Easy to store and transport.
• High calorific value.
• Less smoke.
• Less residue after burning.

Classification of Sources of Energy

Conventional Sources of Energy (Non-renewable)

Energy sources that cannot replenish themselves within a specific period after they have been depleted are known as conventional or non-renewable energy sources such as coal, gas, and oil. These energy sources have been used extensively for a long time to meet energy demands. However, their rate of consumption is much higher than the rate of formation, resulting in depletion without replenishment.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

The International Energy Agency is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organisation, established in 1974, that provides policy recommendations, analysis and data on the entire global energy sector. The 31 member countries and 11 association countries of the IEA represent 75% of global energy demand. India is an associate member of IEA

Development of conventional sources of energy

In ancient times, wood was the most common source of heat energy. However, with increasing industrialization during the Industrial Revolution in 18^th and 19^th centuries, the global demand for energy started to grow at a tremendous rate. This growing demand for energy was largely met by conventional sources of fossil fuels such as-

Coal

Coal is one of the most widely used conventional sources of energy and is used to generate electricity in thermal power plants. It is also used in industries such as steel production and cement manufacturing. According to International Energy Agency, Coal plays a vital role in electricity generation worldwide. Coal-fired power plants currently fuel 37% of global electricity

Thermal power plants are power plants that generate electricity by converting heat energy into electrical energy. This is typically done by burning fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, or oil to heat water and produce steam. The steam is then used to drive a turbine that generates electricity.

The process begins by burning the fossil fuel in a combustion chamber, which heats water to produce steam. The steam is then directed through a series of pipes to a turbine, where the pressure and velocity of the steam cause the turbine blades to rotate. As the blades rotate, they turn a generator that produces electricity.

The steam that passes through the turbine is then cooled down and condensed back into the water, which is recycled back into the system to be heated up again. Cooling is usually done by drawing water from a nearby body of water, such as a river or a lake.

Oil and natural gas

Oil and natural gas are other conventional sources of energy that are used to generate electricity, fuel transportation, and power various industrial processes. They are also used as raw materials in the production of various chemicals, plastics, and other products.

Did you know?

Worlds largest thermal power plant- Datang Tuoketuo power station in China is the largest operational coal power plant in the world. As of 2021, the power station had a capacity of roughly 6.7 gigawatts.

Nuclear power

Nuclear power is another conventional source of energy that is derived from the process of nuclear fission. It is the cleanest conventional source of energy. This energy is used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants and has been used in many countries worldwide.

However, nuclear power also has several drawbacks, including the potential for accidents or disasters, the risk of nuclear proliferation, and the challenge of storing and disposing of nuclear waste. Nuclear energy provides about 10% of the world’s electricity from about 440 power reactors. Nuclear is the world’s second-largest source of low-carbon power (26% of the total in 2020).

Advantages of Conventional Sources of Energy

• Reliability: Conventional sources of energy are highly reliable and can provide a consistent and predictable supply of energy, which is essential for meeting the energy demands of modern society.
• Affordability: Conventional sources of energy are often more affordable than alternative sources of energy, such as renewables. This is because the infrastructure and technologies for producing and distributing conventional energy are already established, and there are large reserves of fossil fuels available in many parts of the world.
• Energy density: Conventional sources of energy have a high energy density, which means they can provide a lot of energy in a relatively small amount of space. This is particularly important for transportation, where fuels with high energy density, such as gasoline and diesel, are necessary to power vehicles over long distances.
• Established infrastructure: Conventional sources of energy have an existing infrastructure that is already established, including power plants, pipelines, and transportation systems. This infrastructure can be repurposed or upgraded to improve efficiency and reduce environmental impacts.
• Energy security: Conventional sources of energy can provide energy security by reducing reliance on foreign sources of energy and ensuring a stable supply of energy for a country.

Disadvantages of Conventional Sources of Energy

• Environmental impacts: Conventional sources of energy have significant environmental impacts, including air and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and habitat destruction. These impacts can have negative effects on human health, ecosystems, and the environment.
• Depletion: Conventional sources of energy are finite resources that will eventually be depleted. As reserves are used up, it becomes more expensive to extract the remaining resources, which can lead to higher energy costs.
• Price volatility: The price of conventional sources of energy, particularly oil, can be volatile and subject to fluctuations due to changes in supply and demand, geopolitical events, and other factors.
• Geopolitical risks: Conventional sources of energy can be subject to geopolitical risks, such as conflicts over resources, trade disputes, and political instability in producing regions.
• Infrastructure challenges: The infrastructure for conventional sources of energy, such as pipelines, refineries, and power plants, can be costly to build and maintain. Additionally, these facilities can have significant environmental and social impacts on local communities.

Non-conventional sources of Energy (Renewable Sources of Energy)

Non- conventional or Renewable sources of energy are sources of energy that are replenished naturally and can be used repeatedly without being depleted. Wind power, solar power, and hydropower are considered a few of the non-conventional sources of energy.

Environmental concerns are a major driving force behind the development of renewable sources of energy. According to the International Energy Agency, the energy sector is responsible for approximately 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Renewable energy can help to reduce these emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change. In 2020, renewable energy accounted for over 80% of new power capacity added globally, with solar and wind power leading the way.

Some major Non-conventional sources of energy are mentioned below:

Solar Energy

The energy that is generated from the sun’s radiation. Solar energy power generation is the process of harnessing the energy of the sun and converting it into usable electricity. This is typically done through the use of solar panels, which are made up of photovoltaic cells that can convert sunlight directly into electricity.

The process of solar energy generation begins with sunlight hitting the solar panels. The photovoltaic cells in the panels then absorb the sunlight and convert it into direct current (DC) electricity. The DC electricity is then sent to an inverter, which converts it into alternating current (AC) electricity that can be used to power homes and businesses.

According to International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the global solar capacity amounted to 849 GW in 2021. Further, it accounted for 3.6% of the world’s energy generation.

Advantages:

• Solar energy is a clean and renewable source of energy, meaning it does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions or other harmful pollutants.
• Solar power is becoming increasingly affordable and cost-competitive with traditional sources of energy.
• Solar panels require little maintenance and have a long lifespan, often lasting for 25 years or more.
• Solar energy can be generated in remote or off-grid areas where other sources of energy are not available.
• Solar power can help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and increase energy security.

Disadvantages:

• Solar panels require a large amount of space to generate significant amounts of electricity, which can be a challenge in densely populated areas.
• Solar power generation is reliant on weather conditions, meaning it may not be as consistent or reliable as other sources of energy such as natural gas or nuclear power.
• The production and disposal of solar panels can have environmental impacts, including the use of rare and toxic materials.
• The upfront cost of installing solar panels can be high, although this cost has been decreasing in recent years.
• Solar power generation can be less efficient in areas with less sunlight or during periods of low light, such as cloudy days or during the winter months.

Wind Energy

The energy that is generated from the movement of the wind. Wind energy power generation is the process of harnessing the power of the wind to generate electricity. This is typically done through the use of wind turbines, which are large structures that have blades that rotate when the wind blows.

The process of wind energy generation begins with the wind turning the blades of the wind turbine. The rotation of the blades then powers a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy. The electricity generated by the wind turbine is then sent to a transformer, which increases the voltage of the electricity so that it can be transported through power lines to homes and businesses.

According to Global Wind Report 2022, the Total global wind power capacity is now up to 837 GW, helping the world avoid over 1.2 billion tonnes of CO2 annually.

Advantages:

• Wind energy is a clean and renewable source of energy, meaning it does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions or other harmful pollutants.
• Wind power is becoming increasingly affordable and cost-competitive with traditional sources of energy.
• Wind turbines have a small physical footprint and can be installed in a variety of locations, including offshore areas.
• Wind energy can be generated in remote or off-grid areas where other sources of energy are not available.
• Wind power can help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and increase energy security.

Disadvantages:

• Wind turbines can be noisy and can have visual impacts on the landscape, which can be a concern for some communities.
• Wind power generation is reliant on wind conditions, meaning it may not be as consistent or reliable as other sources of energy such as natural gas or nuclear power.
• Wind turbines can pose a threat to wildlife, particularly birds and bats, which can collide with the blades.
• Wind turbines can be expensive to install and maintain, although this cost has been decreasing in recent years.
• Wind power generation can be less efficient in areas with low wind speeds, which may limit its potential in some locations.

Case study

A Wildlife Institute of India (WII) survey covering 80 km of power lines across the Thar desert region of the state found four bustard deaths during a single year due to high-transmission wires, including some connected to wind turbines. The study found that the birds died either because of the impact of the collision or electrocution.

Hydro Energy

Hydropower generation is the process of harnessing the energy of flowing water to generate electricity. This is typically done through the use of hydroelectric dams, which are large structures that are built across rivers or other bodies of water.

The process of hydropower generation begins with water flowing through the dam and turning the blades of a turbine. The rotation of the turbine then powers a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the water into electrical energy.

The electricity generated by the hydroelectric dam is then sent to a transformer, which increases the voltage of the electricity so that it can be transported through power lines to homes and businesses. According to the International Hydropower Association’s report, global installed hydropower capacity increased by 1.9 per cent to reach 1,360 gigawatts (GW) in 2021.

Advantages:

• Hydropower is a clean and renewable source of energy, meaning it does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions or other harmful pollutants.
• Hydroelectric dams can provide a reliable source of electricity that is not subject to weather conditions or other external factors.
• Hydroelectric dams can provide a source of irrigation and water supply for surrounding areas.
• Hydroelectric dams can help to regulate water levels in rivers and prevent flooding.
• Hydroelectric dams can be used for both electricity generation and water storage, providing multiple benefits.

Disadvantages:

• The construction of hydroelectric dams can have significant environmental impacts, including the flooding of large areas of land and the displacement of local communities.
• Hydroelectric dams can alter the natural flow of rivers and impact the habitat of fish and other aquatic species.
• The cost of building and maintaining hydroelectric dams can be high, which can make them less economically viable in some locations.
• Hydroelectric dams can be vulnerable to droughts and other changes in water availability, which can impact their ability to generate electricity.
• Hydroelectric dams can also pose safety risks, particularly if they are not properly maintained or operated.

Did you know?

As of 2021, the world’s largest hydroelectric dam based on generation capacity was the Three Gorges dam built on Yangtze River in China. The dam was equipped with 34 turbo generators and the power plant had a power generation capacity of 22.5 gigawatts.

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is the energy that is generated by tapping into the heat that is naturally produced by the Earth’s core. This energy can be harnessed in several different ways to generate electricity or to provide heating and cooling for buildings.

One common way of generating electricity from geothermal energy is through the use of geothermal power plants. These plants are typically located in areas where there is a high concentration of geothermal activity, such as near volcanoes or tectonic plate boundaries. In a geothermal power plant, water is pumped down into the Earth’s crust, where it is heated by geothermal energy and then pumped back up to the surface. The hot water is then used to power turbines, which generate electricity.

Another way of using geothermal energy is through the use of geothermal heat pumps. These pumps are used to heat and cool buildings by transferring heat between the ground and the building. In the winter, the pump draws heat from the Earth and transfers it into the building to provide heating. In the summer, the pump works in reverse, drawing heat from the building and transferring it into the ground to provide cooling.

Global geothermal power generation capacity stood at 15,854 MW at the year-end of 2021.

Advantages:

• Geothermal energy is a clean and renewable source of energy that does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions or other harmful pollutants.
• Geothermal power plants have a small footprint and can be built in areas that would not be suitable for other types of power plants, such as solar or wind.
• Geothermal energy is reliable and can provide a steady source of electricity that is not subject to weather conditions or other external factors.
• Geothermal heat pumps can be used to provide heating and cooling for buildings, which can be more energy-efficient than traditional heating and cooling systems.
• Geothermal energy can be used for multiple purposes, such as electricity generation, heating, and cooling.

Disadvantages:

• The construction and operation of geothermal power plants can have significant environmental impacts, such as the potential for land subsidence and the release of geothermal fluids that may contain harmful minerals or chemicals.
• The availability of geothermal resources is limited to certain areas of the world, meaning that not all countries or regions will be able to use geothermal energy as a source of power.
• The initial investment in geothermal power plants can be high, which can make them less economically viable in some locations.
• The use of geothermal heat pumps may require significant modifications to existing buildings, which can also be costly.
• The maintenance and repair of geothermal systems can be complex and expensive, requiring specialized equipment and expertise.

Biomass Energy

The energy that is generated from organic matter, such as wood, crops, and waste. Biomass energy is a form of renewable energy that is derived from organic materials such as wood, crops, agricultural waste, and animal waste. These materials can be burned or converted into other forms of fuel to generate electricity, heat buildings, or power vehicles.

One common way of using biomass energy is through the use of biomass power plants. In these plants, biomass materials are burned to produce steam, which is used to power turbines that generate electricity. Biomass can also be converted into liquid fuels such as ethanol or biodiesel, which can be used to power vehicles.

Another way of using biomass energy is through the use of biomass heating systems. These systems can use biomass fuels such as wood chips or pellets to provide heating for buildings or to heat water for domestic use.

Global electricity generation from biomass totaled 685 terawatt-hours in 2020. 66% of all biopower generated was from solid biomass sources followed by 19% from municipal and industrial waste. Biogas share was 14%.

Advantages:

• Biomass is a renewable resource that can be produced locally, reducing the need for imported fuels.
• Biomass energy is a relatively low-cost source of energy, especially when compared to fossil fuels.
• The use of biomass energy can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable land use practices.
• Biomass can be used for multiple purposes, such as electricity generation, heating, and transportation fuels.
• The production of biomass energy can provide economic benefits to local communities through the creation of jobs and the sale of biomass materials.

Disadvantages:

• The use of biomass fuels can be less efficient than other forms of renewable energy and may produce emissions such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide.
• The availability of biomass resources may be limited in some areas, which can make it difficult to scale up the use of biomass energy.
• The use of biomass can compete with other land uses such as food production, and may have negative impacts on biodiversity if not managed properly.
• The production and transportation of biomass fuels may require significant amounts of energy, which can offset some of the environmental benefits of using biomass energy.
• The storage and handling of biomass materials can be complex and may require specialized equipment and expertise.

Ocean Energy

The energy that is generated from the motion of ocean waves or the temperature differences in ocean water. Ocean energy can be generated from the movement of waves, tides, and ocean currents. There are several types of ocean energy, including:

• Wave energy: Wave energy is generated by the up-and-down motion of waves on the ocean’s surface. Wave energy devices use buoys, floats, or other structures to capture the energy from the waves and convert it into electricity.
• Tidal energy: Tidal energy is generated by the movement of the tides. Tidal energy devices use turbines or other structures to capture the energy from the flow of water as the tides come in and out.
• Ocean current energy: Ocean currents are like underwater rivers that flow continuously in the ocean. Ocean current energy devices use turbines or other structures to capture the energy from the flow of water in these currents. The total worldwide power in ocean currents has been estimated to be about 5,000 GW.
• Ocean thermal energy: Ocean thermal energy is generated by the difference in temperature between warm surface water and cold deep water. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) devices use this temperature difference to generate electricity.
• Salinity gradient energy: Salinity gradient energy is generated by the difference in salt concentration between saltwater and freshwater. Salinity gradient devices use membranes or other technologies to capture the energy from this difference in salt concentration.
• At present, ocean energy accounts for barely 0.3% of global electricity generation.

Advantages:

• Renewable: Ocean energy is a renewable resource that is abundant and reliable, making it an attractive alternative to fossil fuels.
• Predictable: Ocean energy is predictable and can be forecasted in advance, making it easier to integrate into the energy grid.
• No fuel costs: Ocean energy devices do not require any fuel to generate electricity, which can lead to lower operating costs over time.
• Minimal carbon emissions: Ocean energy devices produce very little carbon emissions during operation, making them an environmentally friendly source of energy.
• Potentially high energy density: Some types of ocean energy, such as tidal and ocean current energy, have high energy densities, which means that they can generate a lot of energy from a relatively small amount of space.

Disadvantages:

• High capital costs: The capital costs of building ocean energy devices can be high, which can make it difficult for some projects to be economically viable.
• Limited deployment areas: Ocean energy devices require specific ocean conditions and deployment areas, which may limit their deployment in some locations.
• Environmental impact: Ocean energy devices can have environmental impacts on marine ecosystems, such as changes in water temperature, noise pollution, and habitat disturbance.
• Maintenance challenges: The harsh ocean environment can make it difficult to maintain and repair ocean energy devices, which can lead to higher maintenance costs.
• Uncertainty around technology: Ocean energy technology is still in the early stages of development, and there is some uncertainty around the effectiveness and reliability of the devices.

Advantages of Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

• Sustainable: Renewable energy sources are sustainable and do not deplete natural resources. For example, solar energy and wind energy are sources that will never run out, unlike fossil fuels which are finite in nature.
• No GHG emissions: Renewable energy sources do not produce greenhouse gas emissions or other harmful pollutants, making them a cleaner and more environmentally friendly option. According to the International Energy Agency, in 2020, renewable energy accounted for 80% of the new electricity generation capacity added globally and avoided the emission of approximately 2.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide, equivalent to the emissions of over 700 million cars.
• Help mitigate climate change: Renewable energy can help to mitigate climate change and reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. For example, in 2020, wind and solar power accounted for 9% of the total electricity generation in the United States and helped to avoid the emission of approximately 175 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, equivalent to taking 37 million cars off the road for a year.
• Economic benefits: Renewable energy can create jobs and stimulate economic growth. According to a report by the International Renewable Energy Agency, the renewable energy sector employed 11.5 million people worldwide in 2019, and this number is expected to continue growing.
• Energy security: Renewable energy can provide energy security and reduce reliance on imported fuels. For example, in 2020, renewable energy accounted for 60% of the new electricity generation capacity added in Europe, helping to reduce the dependence on imported energy sources and increase energy independence.

Challenges associated with Non-conventional sources of energy

• Intermittency: According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the variability of wind and solar power can cause instability in power systems and requires new technologies and solutions for integration. In 2020, wind power provided 7.2% of global electricity, while solar power provided 3.2%.
• Storage: As of 2021, the cost of energy storage systems like lithium-ion batteries is still relatively high, with an average cost of $137 per kilowatt-hour (kWh). This can make it difficult to store excess energy generated from renewable sources. However, the cost of energy storage has been declining, falling by 87% since 2010.
• Land use: Large-scale solar and wind farms can require significant land use, which can have environmental and social impacts. For example, the construction of wind farms can disrupt natural habitats and impact wildlife. In addition, solar farms can impact local communities and traditional land uses.
• Cost: While the costs of renewable energy have been decreasing in recent years, they are still often more expensive than conventional sources of energy. According to the IEA, the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for onshore wind and utility-scale solar PV has fallen by 56% and 85%, respectively, since 2010. However, the LCOE of renewables is still higher than that of coal and gas in many parts of the world.
• Infrastructure: To effectively harness renewable energy, significant infrastructure investments are required, such as new transmission lines, smart grids, and energy storage facilities. According to the IEA, investment in renewable power and fuels was $834 billion in 2020, up 2% from 2019.
• Environmental impact: While renewable energy sources are generally considered more environmentally friendly than conventional sources, they can still have negative impacts on the environment. For example, the construction of large-scale hydroelectric dams can displace communities and impact biodiversity.
• Policy and regulatory challenges: The development and deployment of renewable energy sources can be affected by a range of policy and regulatory challenges. For example, changes in government policy or regulations around energy production and distribution can impact the development of renewable energy. In addition, the lack of consistent policies and regulations can lead to uncertainty for investors and hinder the growth of the renewable energy sector.

Difference between Conventional and Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Parameter	Conventional Sources of Energy	Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
Definition	Sources of energy that have been traditionally used and are finite in nature.	Sources of energy that are replenished naturally and can be used repeatedly without being depleted.
Examples	Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy	Solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy, geothermal energy, biomass energy
Environmental Impacts	High, including air and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and habitat destruction.	Low, with minimal environmental impacts and do not emit harmful pollutants or greenhouse gases.
Depletion	Finite and will eventually be depleted.	Renewable and can be used repeatedly without being depleted.
Price Volatility	High, subject to fluctuations due to changes in supply and demand, geopolitical events, and other factors.	Low, with relatively stable prices due to abundance and availability.
Infrastructure Challenges	Costly to build and maintain.	Can have infrastructure challenges but is generally less costly and easier to maintain.
Geopolitical Risks	High, subject to conflicts over resources, trade disputes, and political instability in producing regions.	Low, with fewer geopolitical risks such as Ukraine war, due to availability in multiple regions.
Job Creation	Can create jobs in extraction, processing, and transportation, but often fewer jobs compared to non-conventional sources.	Can create jobs in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance, and often more jobs compared to conventional sources.
Current Energy Generation Capacity	High, with significant capacity for electricity generation and transportation fuels.	Growing rapidly, with increasing capacity for electricity generation and transportation fuels.
Generation Capacity Costs	Often high, with significant upfront costs for infrastructure and ongoing costs for fuel and maintenance.	Declining rapidly, with falling costs for renewable energy technologies and improving efficiency.

Energy generation scenario in India

India has emerged as a significant player in the global energy economy, driven by a period of rapid economic growth. India is the third largest producer of electricity in the world. The Indian national electric grid has an installed capacity of 416.0 GW as of 31 March 2023. India has a surplus power generation capacity but lacks adequate fuel supply and power distribution infrastructure.

Since 2000, energy consumption in the country has more than doubled. In 2019, near-universal access to electricity was achieved, benefiting over 900 million citizens in less than two decades.

Conventional energy sector in India

Over 80% of India’s energy needs are met by three fuels: coal, oil and solid biomass. Coal has underpinned the expansion of electricity generation and industry, and remains the largest single fuel in the energy mix.

As of May 2022, India has a total Thermal installed capacity of 236.1 GW of which 58.6% of the thermal power is obtained from coal and the rest from Lignite, Diesel, and Gas.

Non-conventional energy sector in India

India has huge ambitions in energy transition and plans to have 500 GW of non-fossil-based electricity installed capacity by 2030 so that non-fossil cleaner fuel comprises 50% of the installed capacity mix by 2030.

Electricity energy generation from Renewable Energy Sources (Solar, Wind, Hydro& bio-power) has increased from 193.5 Bn units during 2013-14 to 306.3 Bn units during 2020-21 showing a CAGR of 6.8%.

Share of non-fossil fuel-based generation capacity in the total installed capacity of the Country is likely to increase from 42% as of October 2022 to more than 64% by 2029-30.

• Largest wind farm: The Muppandal Wind Farmis India’s largest operational onshore wind farm with a capacity of 1500 MW. This project is located in Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu.
• Largest solar farm: Bhadla Solar Park is the largest solar park in the world as of 2022 and is spread over a total area of 5,700 hectares (14,000 acres) in Bhadla, Phalodi tehsil, Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, India. The park has a total capacity of 2245 MW.
• Tidal plant:  India is estimated to have a potential of about 54 gigawatts (GW) of ocean energy including about 12.4 GW of tidal power. The Gujarat State government has approved Rs 25 crore for setting up India’s first Tidal power plant of 50 MW capacity at the Gulf of Kutch.
• Geothermal plant: Puga valley will be India’s first geothermal energy project and also the world’s highest at 14,000ft.

TOTAL INSTALLED CAPACITY  (As on March 2023) Source : Central Electricity Authority (CEA)
Sector	MW	% of Total
Central Sector	1,00,055	24%
State Sector	1,05,726	25.4%
Private Sector	2,10,278	50.5%
Total	4,16,059

Installed GENERATION CAPACITY(FUELWISE) AS ON 31.03.2023
CATEGORY	INSTALLED GENERATION CAPACITY(MW)	% of SHARE IN Total
Fossil Fuel
Coal	205,235	49.3%
Lignite	6,620	1.6%
Gas	24,824	6%
Diesel	589	0.1%
Total Fossil Fuel	2,37,269	57.7 %
Non-Fossil Fuel
RES (Incl. Hydro)	172,010	41.3%
Hydro	46,850	11.3 %
Wind, Solar & Other RE	125,160	30.1 %
Wind	42,633	10.2 %
Solar	66,780	16.1 %
BM Power/Cogen	10,248	2.5 %
Waste to Energy	554	0.1 %
Small Hydro Power	4,944	1.2 %
Nuclear	6,780	1.6%
Total Non-Fossil Fuel	178,790	43%
Total Installed Capacity (Combined)	4,16,059	100%

Challenges in the Indian energy sector

• Limited access to modern energy: Despite India’s significant economic growth, more than 350 million people still lack access to electricity. Traditional fuels like non-commercial biomass remain a significant energy source, constituting more than 30 percent of the fuel mix in the country. This dependence on traditional fuels limits the country’s potential for clean and modern energy.
• Heavy reliance on fossil fuels: India’s power sector heavily relies on fossil fuels, particularly coal. Although the country has significant untapped renewable energy potential, such as hydropower, only a fraction of it has been harnessed so far. This imbalance needs to be addressed to transition to a more sustainable energy mix.
• Weak sector institutions and utility governance: The accountability, operational efficiency, and customer service orientation of restructured entities in the energy sector remain low. The sector experiences significant technical and non-technical losses during the transmission of electricity, resulting in financial losses and slow commercialization.
• The increasing importance of sustainability and climate change considerations: As India continues to industrialize and urbanize, it will put immense pressure on the energy sector and policymakers to address sustainability and climate change issues. Although India has low per capita emissions, it is currently the sixth largest GHG emitter in the world, accounting for 4% of global GHG emissions.

Steps Taken in India

• FDI Reforms: 100% FDI in the power sector in India is allowed for generation from all sources (except atomic energy), transmission and distribution of electric energy, and Power Trading under the automatic route has been allowed.
• Increasing the share of renewable energy: The Indian government has set a target of achieving 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022, including 100 GW of solar, 60 GW of wind, 10 GW of biomass, and 5 GW of small hydro power. In addition, the government has announced a target of achieving 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030.
• Energy conservation and efficiency measures: The government has launched several initiatives to promote energy conservation and efficiency, such as the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) and the Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) scheme. These initiatives aim to improve the efficiency of energy use in industries, buildings, and appliances.
• Smart grid infrastructure: The Indian government is investing in smart grid infrastructure to improve the reliability and efficiency of power supply. The Ministry of Power has launched the National Smart Grid Mission, which aims to create a smarter, more efficient, and sustainable power grid.
• Energy storage: The government is promoting the development of energy storage technologies to enable better integration of renewable energy sources into the grid. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has launched the National Programme on Advanced Energy Storage, which aims to promote research and development in energy storage technologies.
• Coal sector reforms: The Indian government has initiated several reforms in the coal sector to increase efficiency, transparency, and competition. These reforms include the auctioning of coal blocks, the introduction of commercial coal mining, and the implementation of a coal linkage policy to ensure a steady supply of coal to power plants.
• SAUBHAGYA scheme: The Saubhagya scheme is a flagship program of the Government of India launched in September 2017. The scheme aims to provide free electricity connections to all households in rural and urban areas that do not have access to electricity. As of March 2021, over 28 million households had been electrified under the Saubhagya scheme, with a total of 99.99% of households having access to electricity.

Current Aspect: New developments in Energy generation technologies

Under the Paris Climate Deal, each participating country is required to submit a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), which outlines its efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Since, the energy generation sector is a major contributor to the carbon emissions sector, several countries are trying to develop new, energy-efficient and green energy generation technologies or are trying to make current technologies more carbon efficient.

Some of the new technologies are mentioned below.

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 countries at the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in December 2015 and entered into force in November 2016. The goal of the agreement is to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with a preferred limit of 1.5 degrees Celsius, in order to prevent catastrophic climate change impacts.

ITER Project

ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) is a global project aimed at developing a large-scale nuclear fusion reactor that can provide a sustainable and clean energy source for the future. The project is a collaboration between the European Union, China, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the United States.

• The ITER reactor is based on the tokamak design and will be the largest of its kind, with a total weight of approximately 23,000 tons. It will use powerful magnets to confine a plasma of hydrogen isotopes in a toroidal (doughnut-shaped) chamber, heated to temperatures over ten times hotter than the core of the sun. This will cause the hydrogen isotopes to fuse together, releasing energy in the form of heat and light, which can then be converted into electricity.
• The main goal of ITER is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of fusion energy and to pave the way for the construction of a commercial-scale fusion power plant.
• ITER-India is responsible for the delivery of the following ITER packages: Cryostat, In-wall Shielding, Cooling Water System, Cryogenic System and other systems. Also, India is contributing resources worth about Rs 20,000 crore or about $2.2 billion.

Carbon sequestration technologies

Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and storing it in long-term storage sites such as geological formations, oceans, and plants. It is considered an important strategy to mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

There are several technologies related to carbon sequestration, including:

• Carbon capture and storage (CCS): This technology involves capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as power plants and industrial facilities, and storing it in underground geological formations.
• Enhanced oil recovery (EOR): This technology involves injecting CO2 into depleted oil reservoirs to increase oil recovery while also sequestering carbon in the reservoirs.
• Ocean fertilization: This technology involves adding iron or other nutrients to the ocean to stimulate the growth of phytoplankton, which absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.
• Afforestation and reforestation: This technology involves planting trees and other vegetation to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• Soil carbon sequestration: This technology involves changing land use practices and agricultural practices to increase the amount of carbon stored in the soil.

Recently, NITI Aayog has released a study report on ‘Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS) Policy Framework and its Deployment Mechanism in India which could serve as a roadmap for CCUS deployment in India.

Green Hydrogen

Green hydrogen refers to hydrogen gas that is produced using renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power, through a process called electrolysis. In this process, water is split into hydrogen and oxygen using an electrical current. Unlike hydrogen produced using fossil fuels, green hydrogen does not produce any carbon emissions during production and usage.

Green hydrogen has several potential uses, including as a fuel for transportation, energy storage, and industrial processes. It can be used as a zero-emissions fuel for vehicles, as well as for heating and electricity generation. It can also be stored and transported over long distances, making it a flexible energy source.

India has launched “The National Green Hydrogen Mission” with the intended objectives:

• Making India a leading producer and supplier of Green Hydrogen in the world
• Creation of export opportunities for Green Hydrogen and its derivatives
• Reduction in dependence on imported fossil fuels and feedstock
• Development of indigenous manufacturing capabilities
• Attracting investment and business opportunities for the industry
• Creating opportunities for employment and economic development
• Supporting R&D projects

Biofuels

Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass or organic matter, including plants and waste materials. They can be used to power vehicles, heat buildings, and generate electricity. There are three main types of biofuels:

1. Ethanol: Ethanol is an alcohol-based fuel made by fermenting and distilling starch crops, such as corn, sugarcane, and wheat, or cellulosic biomass, such as switchgrass, wood chips, and agricultural waste. It is commonly used as a blending component in gasoline to reduce carbon emissions.
2. Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a renewable diesel fuel made from vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled cooking oil. It can be used in diesel engines without any modifications and is commonly blended with petroleum diesel to reduce emissions.
3. Biogas: Biogas is a renewable energy source produced by the anaerobic digestion of organic matter, such as food waste, agricultural residues, and animal manure. It is composed of methane, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases, and can be used to generate electricity and heat.

Biofuels offer several advantages over fossil fuels, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions, improved energy security, and support for rural economies. However, they also have some disadvantages, such as the competition for land and water resources, and the potential for negative environmental impacts from intensive agriculture and land-use change.

India’s Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas published its “National Policy on Biofuels” in 2018, and further amended it in June 2022. The policy’s objective is to reduce the import of petroleum products by fostering domestic biofuel production.

Concentrating Solar Power Technology

Since the 1980s, Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technology has used mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver that captures and transforms solar energy into heat to produce electricity. Recently, however, the technology has re-emerged as a promising green energy solution, thanks to advancements in various CSP systems and the development of novel solar thermal storage solutions like molten salt technology.

Floating Wind Turbines

Floating wind turbines have emerged as a potential solution to tapping the offshore wind power potential of deeper waters, where winds are stronger and steadier. Unlike traditional offshore wind turbines, which require concrete bases anchored to the seabed, floating wind turbines use floating oil and gas offshore platform technology and are anchored using only a few cables, making them suitable for sites as deep as 700m. Additionally, floating wind turbines are less obtrusive in deeper waters.

Biomass gasification technology for power generation

Biomass gasification technology has also gained traction as a means of converting abundant biomass wastes into clean and efficient electrical energy. Advanced biomass gasification power plants involve a gasifier system that converts solid biomass into clean combustible gas through thermo-chemical processes involving drying, pyrolysis, and gasification stages. The non-combustible ash produced in the process is removed periodically with a grate-shaking mechanism.

Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) technology

The use of Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) technology has the capability to produce electricity from various organic waste materials, such as wastewater and human urine. The process involves utilizing bacteria that can convert chemical energy into electrical energy through catalytic reactions of microorganisms.

This technology has the additional benefit of simultaneously sanitizing the waste material. The MFC technology harnesses the naturally-occurring microbes present in the anode compartment of the cell, which act as a bio-catalyst. As the organic waste is introduced into the cell, the microbes produce electrons as a result of consuming the waste during their natural metabolic processes. When connected to the cathode, the movement of electrodes generates electricity.

Notes and References

1. https://www.learncbse.in/sources-of-energy-class-10-notes/
2. https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/jesc114.pdf
3. https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/thermal-power
4. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2010/04/19/india-power-sector
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#:~:text=India’s%20electricity%20sector%20is%20dominated,increase%20investment%20in%20renewable%20energy.
6. https://powermin.gov.in/en/content/power-sector-glance-all-india
7. https://www.power-technology.com/features/featuresix-of-the-most-promising-new-green-power-technologies-4199646/

Biofuel

Introduction

Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels primarily produced from biomass, and can be used to replace or can be used in addition to diesel, petrol or other fossil fuels for transport, stationary, portable and other applications. Crops used to make biofuels are generally either high in sugar (such as sugarcane, sugar beet, and sweet sorghum), starch (such as maize and tapioca) or oils (such as soybean, rapeseed, coconut, and sunflower).

Categories of Biofuels

Biofuels are generally classified into four categories. These are:

First-generation biofuels

• First-generation biofuels are those that are produced from edible energy crops such as sugar-based crops (sugarcane, sugar beet, and sorghum), starch-based crops (corn, wheat, and barley) or oil-based crops (rapeseed, sunflower, and canola).
• Common first-generation biofuels include Bio-alcohols, Biodiesel, Vegetable oil, Bio-ethers and Biogas etc.

Second-generation biofuels

• The second-generation biofuels are entirely produced from non-food feedstocks such as dedicated energy crops and other lignocellulosic plants, agricultural residues, forest residues and other waste products.
• It enabling the use of lower-cost, non-edible feedstocks, thereby limiting direct food vs. fuel competition. Ex. Advanced biofuels like bio-hydrogen, bio-methanol.
• As Compared to first-generation biofuel production, the second generation is an improved method that focuses on both increased fuel recovery and the production of secondary raw material.

Third-generation biofuels

• The third-generation biofuels are derived from microalgae via trans-esterification or hydro-treatment of the algal oil. These methods can efficiently increase the biofuel yield per year than the first-generation biofuels that use traditional crops.
• The second and third-generation biofuels are still under development and research progress, and hence, they are collectively regarded as advanced biofuels.
• The primary sources include feasible resources that don’t affect the food chain and are feasible, readily available and flexible towards environmental parameters. These sources are majorly microalgae, animal oils, fish oil, waste cooking oil, animal fat etc. another significant advancement include the potential to decrease water pollution and a load of waste handling plant.

Fourth-generation biofuels

• The fourth-generation biofuels are processed using genetically modified (GM) algae and photo biological solar fuels and electro-fuels. The GM algae biomass is effective in producing biofuels, improving photosynthetic efficiency, and increasing light penetration.
• The fourth-generation solar raw materials are widely available, economically cheaper and inexhaustible. The genetic modification of micro algal biomass holds a potential application in oil extraction methodology by inducing autolysis of cells and product secretary systems.

Comparison between all generation of biofuels

First-generation biofuels	Second-generation biofuels	Third-generation biofuels	Fourth-generation biofuels
Adverse effect on food security	No impact on food security	No impact on food security	No impact on food security
Blackish and saline water suitable for feedstock growth	Brackish and saline water unsuitable for feedstock growth	Brackish and saline water can be used thus comparatively little impact on water footprint	Brackish and saline water can be used
Requires cultivable land for feedstock generation	Cultivable land or forests needed	Non-arable land such as waste lagoon, sea etc. can be utilized	Non-arable land can be used
Negative impact on environment- it due to use of fertilizers and pesticides	Deforestation is a major concern though it is less dependent on fertilizers	Environment friendly but only- marine eutrophication is a concern	Environment friendly but release of genetically modified strains is a major concern
Feedstock growth is largely dependent on environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation, humidity etc.	Feedstock growth is dependent on environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation, humidity etc.	Feedstock can be grown on rough condition.	Feedstock can be grow in rough conditions
High energy efficiency due to existing commercial production	Existing commercial production	Commercial production not yet in place; extensive research on going	Technology in early development stages
Low Capital expenditure and operational expenditure	Low Capital expenditure and operational expenditure	Capital expenditure and operational expenditure is high	Capital expenditure and operational expenditure is high
Monoculture of feedstock’s resulted in loss of biodiversity	No impact on biodiversity	No impact on biodiversity	No impact on biodiversity

Other Types of biofuels

Biofuels can be classified into three main types based on their physical state: solid, liquid, and gaseous.

Solid Biofuels

• Solid biofuels are made from solid organic, non-fossil biomass of biological origin (plants and animals). They have significant applications in heat production, energy, and electricity generation. Examples of solid biofuels include wood pellets, charcoal, fuel wood, wood residue, animal waste, and other renewable industrial waste. Biochar is also a solid biofuel that is produced by burning organic material in the absence of oxygen.

Liquid Biofuels

• All liquids biofuels are produced from natural biomass or biodegradable fractions. The liquid biofuel in greatest production is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is made by fermenting starch or sugar. These fuels have high energy density and are ideal for transportation, storage, and retrofitting. Examples of liquid biofuels include bioethanol, biodiesel, and bio-oil.

Gaseous Biofuels

• Gaseous biofuels are produced from biomass in the form of gases. These fuels are low in density and include biogas, bio-hydrogen, and bio-syngas. The bio-waste is converted into gaseous biofuels through pyrolysis or gasification. Gaseous biofuels are then used in Otto engines connected to an electricity generator to produce electricity or heat.

Methods of Biofuel Production

There are several methods of biomass conversion (1) that can be used to produce biofuels. The choice of method depends on the type of biomass, the desired end product, and other factors such as cost and environmental impact. Here are some of the most common methods:

Thermo-chemical processes

This involves using heat to break down biomass into simpler chemical compounds. The most common thermochemical conversion methods include pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion.

• Pyrolysis
  • Pyrolysis is one of the technologies available (4) to convert biomass to an intermediate liquid product that can be refined to drop-in hydrocarbon biofuels, oxygenated fuel additives and petrochemical replacements.
  • Pyrolysis is the heating of an organic material, such as biomass, in the absence of oxygen. Biomass pyrolysis is usually conducted at or above 500 °C, providing enough heat to deconstruct the strong bio-polymers mentioned above.
  • Because no oxygen is present combustion does not occur, rather the biomass thermally decomposes into combustible gases and bio-char.
  • Most of these combustible gases can be condensed into a combustible liquid, called pyrolysis oil (bio-oil), though there are some permanent gases (CO­2, CO, H2, light hydrocarbons), some of which can be combusted to provide the heat for the process.
  • Pyrolysis of biomass produces three products: one liquid, bio-oil, one solid, bio-char and one gaseous, syngas.
  • This produces an oil-like liquid that can be burned like fuel oil or refined into chemicals and fuels, such as “green gasoline.”

• Combustion
  • Combustion involves burning biomass in the air that is further utilised to convert chemical energy to heat, mechanical power, or electricity. A variety of process equipment is used to conduct the combustion process, including stoves, furnaces, boilers, steam turbines, turbo-generators, etc.
  • The biomass combustion significantly depends on feedstock’s particle size, temperature and combustion atmosphere. The major limitation of the combustion process is the high emission of carbon dioxide and nitric oxide, and particulate matter and ashes release.

• Gasification
  • Gasification is another thermochemical process that incorporates biomass fuel to obtain energy-rich gaseous products. In this process, heat and a limited amount of oxygen are used to convert biomass into a hot synthesis gas.
  • This “syngas” can be combusted and used to produce electricity in a gas turbine or converted to hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, or chemical products. In this process, biomass gasifiers can work side by side with fossil fuel gasifiers for greater flexibility and lower net greenhouse gas emissions.

Syngas

Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, in various ratios. The gas often contains some carbon dioxide and methane. It is principally used for producing ammonia or methanol. Syngas is combustible and can be used as a fuel.

• Liquefaction
  • Liquefaction is converting biomass or organic material into stable liquid hydrocarbons under low temperature and high hydrogen pressure. The high-pressure liquefaction of air-dried wood provides bio-oils composed of a complex mixture of volatile organic acids and alcohols, aldehydes, ethers, esters, ketones, furans phenols, hydrocarbons, and non-volatile components.
  • Catalytic liquefaction is an efficient process to produce products with higher energy density in the liquid phase. The catalytic conversion is aided by using a catalyst or under high hydrogen partial pressure. However, the technology poses many technical problems and has limited the utilisation of the process.

Bio-chemical processes

This involves using enzymes or microorganisms to break down biomass into simpler compounds. The most common biochemical conversion methods include fermentation and anaerobic digestion.

• Fermentation
  • It is an anaerobic process commercially used to produce ethanol from sugar and starch crops such as sugarcane, sugar beet and wheat. The first step involves breaking down saccharides followed by conversion via enzymes and yeast to produce ethanol.
  • Later on, the purification is done by distillation. The solid residues left aren’t simply discarded; rather, they are used as cattle feed, fuel for boilers (sugarcane product), or subjected to gasification. Sugarcane is majorly used as a preferred feedstock due to its high productivity, high residue energy potential.

Anaerobic process

Anaerobic processes occur in the absence of free or combined oxygen, and result in sulphate reduction and methanogenesis. They usually produce biogas, a mixture of mostly methane and carbon dioxide, as a useful by-product and tend to generate lower amounts of bio-solids (sludge) as by-product.

• Anaerobic digestion
  • This involves using enzymes or microorganisms to break down biomass into simpler compounds. This process is carried in large tanks under ideal conditions for several days.
  • After completing digestion, the remaining solid digestate is used as fertilisers, and the released gases (biogas) are used as fuel. The process is considered the most energy-efficient and eco-friendly technology to produce biogas for heat and /or electricity generation, bio-solids used for soil conditioning and liquid used as liquid fertilisers.

Biogas

It’s also sometimes called marsh gas, sewer gas, compost gas and swamp gas. Biogas is a naturally occurring and renewable source of energy, resulting from the breakdown of organic matter. It is a mixture of methane, CO2 and small quantities of other gases produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter in an oxygen-free environment.

Important Biofuel

There are many common types of biofuels that are today used worldwide are.

Bioethanol

• Yeast cells are the prime sources of ethanol production via fermentation of carbohydrates in the absence of carbon dioxide. Bioethanol is derived from a renewable source of energy from ethanol via the fermentation of sugar and starch.
• Bioethanol is first-generation biofuels derived from agricultural products such as corn, sugarcane, potatoes, rice, etc.
• Ethanol has approximately one-third lower calorific value than petrol. One litre of ethanol substitutes for approximately about 0.65 litres of petrol. The energy content of ethanol is better than petrol, with a difference of 11.3 MJ/l.
• Bioethanol is blended (5%) with petrol in many countries. This blend doesn’t require any further engine modification and can be used at higher levels. The United States (US) is the highest producer of ethanol (the fuel is made from 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), followed by Brazil (27% of ethanol).

Biodiesel

• Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from domestic renewable resources i.e. vegetable oils (edible or non- edible oil) and animal fats. These natural oils and fats are primarily made up of triglycerides.
• These triglycerides when reacted chemically with lower alcohols in presence of a catalyst result in fatty acid esters. These esters show striking similarity to petroleum derived diesel and are called “Biodiesel”. As India is deficient in edible oils, non-edible oil may be material of choice for producing biodiesel. Examples are Jatropha curcas, Pongamia, Karanja, etc.
• Biodiesels are used as a fuel additive to reduce pollutants from diesel-powered vehicles such as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon.

Bio-methanol

• Methanol is remarkably similar to methane in chemical composition, the only difference is that methane is gaseous while methanol is liquid. Biomass is converted to methanol through gasification which is done at extremely high temperatures and in the presence of a catalyst.
• Methanol is regarded as ‘wood alcohol’ and are currently produced from natural gas via partial oxidation reaction, whereas bioethanol requires the distillation of liquid obtained after wood pyrolysis. The bio-methane consist of various gases, majorly constituting methane (> 80% volume) and carbon dioxide.

Biogas

• This is the gaseous form of biofuels. It burns just like natural gas and for this reason, is slowly but steadily taking its place. Biogas is mainly composed of methane gas though produced from the process of anaerobic breakdown of biomass. Most agricultural firms use biogas and the fuel is currently being packaged in gas cylinders for household use.
• The fuel is extracted from a mixture of both animals and plants because each contributes a specific element. For instance, plants have significant carbon and hydrogen in them whereas animals have nitrogen in them. These elements are essential for coming up with biogas.

Butanol

• This is another alcohol that serves as a biofuel. Formed through the process of fermentation, butanol is liquid that has a higher energy per unit content than ethanol and methanol. Further, its chemical structure and efficiency is similar to gasoline but the problem is that it is very difficult to produce.
• It is derived from plants especially those that have grains with high energy content such as wheat and sorghum. Due to its high energy content and longer hydrogen chain, it can be injected directly into gasoline engines with no modification.

Biojet fuel

• Biojet fuel is a renewable fuel that is derived from vegetable oils, animal fats, or other biomass sources. It is used as a substitute for petroleum-based jet fuel in aviation.
• CSIR-IIP Dehradun’s home-grown technology to produce bio-jet fuel has been formally approved for use on military aircraft of the Indian Air Force (IAF).

Pyrolysis oil

• Pyrolysis oil is a liquid fuel that is produced by heating biomass in the absence of oxygen. It can be used as a substitute for diesel fuel.
• Selected types of feedstock and tailored made-processes of clean biomass pyrolysis can allow to obtain high quality and value oils that can be used as food aromas, plant protectors or growth enhancers (wood vinegar).

Fuel	Source	Benefits	Maturity
Grain/Sugar Ethanol	Corn, sorghum, and sugarcane	•  Produces a high-octane  fuel for gasoline blends •  Made from a widely available renewable resource	Commercially proven  fuel technology
Biodiesel	Vegetable oils, fats, and greases	• Reduces emissions •  Increases diesel fuel  lubricity	Commercially proven  fuel technology
Green Diesel and Gasoline	Oils and fats, blended with crude oil	•  Offer a superior  feedstock for refineries • Are low-sulphur fuels	Commercial trials  under way in Europe  and Brazil for fuel
Cellulosic Ethanol	Grasses, wood chips, and  agricultural residues	• Produces a high-octane  fuel for gasoline blends	DOE program is  focused on commercial  demonstration  by 2012
Butanol	Corn, sorghum, wheat, and sugarcane	•  Offers a low-volatility,  high energy-density,  water-tolerant  alternate fuel	Commercially proven  fuel technology
Pyrolysis Liquids	Any  lignocellulosic biomass	•  Offer refinery feedstocks, fuel oils, and a future source of aromatics or phenols	Several commercial  facilities produce energy and chemicals
Syngas Liquids	Various biomass as well as fossil fuel sources	•  Can integrate biomass sources with fossil fuel sources •  Produce high-quality  diesel or gasoline	Demonstrated on a large scale with fossil feedstocks, commercial biomass projects under consideration
Diesel/Jet Fuel From Algae	Microalgae grown in  aquaculture systems	•  Offer a high yield per  acre and an aquaculture source of biofuels •  Could be employed for  CO2 capture and reuse	Demonstrated at  pilot scale in 1990s
Hydrocarbons From Biomass	Biomass  carbohydrates	•  Could generate synthetic gasoline, diesel fuel, and other petroleum products	Laboratory-scale research in academic laboratories

Various Biofuels Crop

Jatropha

• Jatropha curcas is multi-purpose non edible oil yielding perennial shrub. This is a hardy and drought tolerant crop can be raised in marginal lands with lesser input. The crop can be maintained for 30 years economically(2).

Sugarbeet

• Sugarbeet is a biennial sugar producing tuber crop, grown in temperate countries. Now tropical sugarbeet varieties are gaining momentum in tropical and sub-tropical countries, as a promising alternative energy crop for the production of ethanol.

Sorghum

• Sorghum (S. bicolor) is the most important millet crop occupying largest area among the cereals next to rice. It is mainly grown for its grain and fodder. Alternative uses of sorghum include commercial utilization of grain in food industry and utilization of stalk for the production of value-added products like ethanol, syrup and jaggery and bio enriched bagasse as a fodder and as a base material for cogeneration.

Pongamia

• There is several non-edible oil yielding trees that can be grown to produce biofuel. Karanja (Pongamia) is one of the most suitable trees. It is widely grown in various parts of the country. It is a Nitrogen fixing tree and hence enriches the soil fertility. It is tolerant to water logging, saline and alkaline soils.

Advantages of Biofuels

Biofuels have several advantages, including:

• Renewable source: Biofuels are made from plants, which are renewable resources. Unlike non-renewable energy sources like oil, which have a limited supply, biofuels can be continually produced as long as we have access to the necessary crops.
• Slows climate change: Biofuels produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions than traditional non-renewable sources like gasoline. Implementing biofuels on a large scale has the potential to significantly slow down the effects of climate change.
• Easier to produce: Biofuels can be made from natural sources that are above the surface, such as crops specifically grown for biofuel processing. This makes them easier to produce than non-renewable energy sources that require extraction, processing, and refining.
• Less pollution when burned, pure biofuels generally produce fewer emissions of particulates, sulfur dioxide, and air toxics than their fossil-fuel derived counterparts. Biofuel-petroleum blends also generally result in lower emissions relative to fuels that do not contain biofuels.
• Accessibility: Biofuels are accessible to any country that can grow crops or produce natural materials, making them a more accessible energy source than non-renewable sources that some countries may not have access to.
• Fuel and energy efficient: Biofuels are more fuel-efficient and better for the wallet than traditional gasoline. As farming methods for biofuel production have improved, biofuel prices have gone down, making them a cost-effective alternative to traditional gasoline.
• Sustainability: A significant benefit of using biogas or biofuel is that it’s more sustainable than its fossil fuel counterpart. Fossil fuels are a finite resource; one day, the world will run out. On the other hand, biofuels are renewable energy made from plants.
• Economic Security: Biofuel production increases the demand for suitable biofuel crops, providing a boost to the agriculture industry. Fuelling homes, businesses and vehicles with biofuels are less expensive than fossil fuels. More jobs will be created with a growing biofuel industry, which will keep our economy secure.

Disadvantages of Biofuels

While biofuels have several advantages, there are also some disadvantages associated with their use, including:

• Land use and competition with food crops: Biofuels require large amounts of land to grow the crops needed for production. This can lead to competition for land use between food crops and biofuel crops, which can drive up food prices and exacerbate food insecurity in some regions.
• Water usage: Biofuel production also requires significant amounts of water, which can lead to water shortages in some areas.
• High cost: The production of biofuels can be more expensive than traditional fossil fuels due to the high cost of production and transportation.
• Limited availability: Biofuels are not as widely available as traditional fossil fuels, and many vehicles and engines are not designed to use them.
• Environmental impacts: While biofuels are often touted as being more environmentally friendly than traditional fossil fuels, their production can still have negative environmental impacts.
• For example, the use of fertilizers and pesticides in biofuel crop production can lead to soil and water pollution, and the clearing of land for biofuel crops can contribute to deforestation and habitat loss. Additionally, the processing and transportation of biofuels can produce greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants.

National Policy on Biofuels -2018

Biofuels in India are of strategic importance as it augers well with the ongoing initiatives of the Government such as Make in India, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Skill Development and offers great opportunity to integrate with the ambitious targets of doubling of Farmers Income, Import Reduction, Employment Generation, and Waste to Wealth Creation etc.(3)

Biofuels programme in India has been largely impacted due to the sustained and quantum non-availability of domestic feedstock for biofuel production which needs to be addressed. To fulfil these objective, a new National Biofuels Policy 2018 was enacted.

Salient Features

• The Policy categorises biofuels as
  • “Basic Biofuels” viz. First Generation (1G) bioethanol & biodiesel.
  • Advanced Biofuels- Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to drop-in fuels.
  • Third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc.
• The Policy expands the scope of raw material for ethanol production by allowing use of Sugarcane Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing materials like Corn, Cassava, Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human consumption for ethanol production.
• Farmers are at a risk of not getting appropriate price for their produce during the surplus production phase. Taking this into account, the Policy allows use of surplus food grains for production of ethanol for blending with petrol with the approval of National Biofuel Coordination Committee.
• With a thrust on Advanced Biofuels, the Policy indicates a viability gap funding scheme for 2G ethanol Bio refineries in 6 years in addition to additional tax incentives, higher purchase price as compared to 1G biofuels.
• The Policy encourages setting up of supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel production from non-edible oilseeds, Used Cooking Oil, and short gestation crops.

Amendments to the National Policy on Biofuels -2018

The Union Cabinet has approved the amendments to the National Policy on Biofuels -2018 to increase biofuel production, and to introduce Ethanol Blended Petrol with up to twenty per cent ethanol throughout the country from 01.04.2023.

The following are the main amendments approved to the National Policy on Biofuels:

• To allow more feedstocks for production of biofuels.
• To advance the ethanol blending target of 20% blending of ethanol in petrol to ESY 2025-26 from 2030.
• To promote the production of biofuels in the country, under the Make in India program, by units located in Special Economic Zones (SEZ)/ Export Oriented Units (EoUs),
• To add new members to the National Biofuel Coordination Committee.
• To grant permission for export of biofuels in specific cases, and
• To delete/amend certain phrases in the Policy in line with decisions taken during the meetings of National Biofuel Coordination Committee.

Expected Benefits

• Reduce Import Dependency: Biofuel can reduce dependence on oil/petroleum imports by blending ethanol with transportation fuel. one crore litre of E10 saves Rs.28 crore of forex at current rates.
• Cleaner Environment: Using biodiesel reduces life cycle emissions because carbon dioxide released from biodiesel combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed from growing soybeans or other feedstock’s used to produce the fuel.
• Health benefits: Prolonged reuse of Cooking Oil for preparing food, particularly in deep-frying is a potential health hazard and can lead to many diseases. Used Cooking Oil is a potential feedstock for biodiesel and its use for making biodiesel will prevent diversion of used cooking oil in the food industry.
• MSW Management: It is estimated that, annually 62 MMT of Municipal Solid Waste gets generated in India. There are technologies available which can convert waste/plastic, MSW to drop in fuels. One ton of such waste has the potential to provide around 20% of drop in fuels.
• Employment Generation: The production of biomass feedstock’s and their conversion to heat and power, transport fuels and bio products, creates new opportunities for:
  • Farmers and forestry workers who are able to diversify into energy crop production and/or processing of agroforestry wastes.
  • Engineers and construction workers who build and operate advanced biofuels bio refineries.
  • Companies who market and distribute biofuels.
• Additional Income to Farmers: By adopting 2G technologies, agricultural residues/waste which otherwise are burnt by the farmers can be converted to ethanol and can fetch a price for these waste if a market is developed for the same. Also, farmers are at a risk of not getting appropriate price for their produce during the surplus production phase. Thus conversion of surplus grains and agricultural biomass can help in price stabilization.

Recent Developments

Topic	Meaning
E20	E20 fuel is a blend of 20 per cent ethanol with petrol. The government aims to achieve the 20 per cent ethanol blending target by 2025. Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) have started dispensing E20 fuel in about 100 outlets in 31 cities in the country.
Ethanol Blending programme	The Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP) seeks to achieve blending of Ethanol with motor sprit with a view to reducing pollution, conserve foreign exchange and increase value addition in the sugar industry enabling them to clear cane price arrears of farmers. The Central Government has scaled up blending targets from 5% to 10% under the Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP). The government of India has advanced the target for 20 per cent ethanol blending in petrol (also called E20) to 2025 from 2030. Ethanol Blending programme has been a key focus areas of the Government to achieve Aatmanirbhar bhart in the field of energy.
Global Biofuel Alliance	Brazil, India, and the United States, as leading biofuel producers and consumers, will work together towards the development of a Global Biofuels Alliance along with other interested countries. This Alliance will be aimed at facilitating cooperation and intensifying the use of sustainable biofuels, including in the transportation sector. It will place emphasis on strengthening markets, facilitating global biofuels trade, development of concrete policy lesson-sharing and provision of technical support for national biofuels programs worldwide. It will also emphasize the already implemented best practices and success cases. The Alliance shall work in collaboration with and complement the relevant existing regional and international agencies as well as initiatives in the bioenergy, bio-economy, and energy transition fields more broadly, including the Clean Energy Ministerial Bio-future Platform, the Mission Innovation Bioenergy initiatives, and the Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP).
Cassava	ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) have found CASSAVA as a raw material for bioethanol production to meet Ethanol Blending Petrol (EBP) programme target of 2025 by India. Because of the high starch content cassava is a high yielding ethanol crop.  Cassava is a drought-tolerant crop that can be grown in areas with uncertain rainfall patterns which usually results in unsuccessful cultivation of many other crops. It has been globally recognised as a potential candidate for bioethanol production.  Tamil Nadu, followed by Kerala accounts for major amount of production. Its cultivation is also extending towards non-traditional areas like Maharashtra in order to meet projected demand for starch.

Notes and References

1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S277242712100036X.
2. https://vikaspedia.in/energy/energy-production/bio-energy/biofuels
3. https://vikaspedia.in/energy/policy-support/renewable-energy-1/biofuels/national-policy-on-biofuels-2018#:~:text=Biofuels%20in%20India%20are%20of,%2C%20Import%20Reduction%2C%20Employment%20Generation%2C
4. https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/wyndmoor-pa/eastern-regional-research-center/docs/biomass-pyrolysis-research-1/what-is-pyrolysis/#:~:text=Pyrolysis%20is%20the%20heating%20of,strong%20bio%2Dpolymers%20mentioned%20above.

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